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Craig E. Divine, Ph.D., PG

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‎About the Contributor

Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes

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Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies

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Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)

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Thermal Remediation - Electrical Resistance Heating

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Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies

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Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)

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Thermal Remediation - Electrical Resistance Heating

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Thermal Remediation

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Main Page

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PFAS Soil Remediation Technologies

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‎See Also

Craig E. Divine, Ph.D., PG

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Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes

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PFAS Leaching Characterization with the Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF)

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Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes

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Amendment Distribution in Low Conductivity Materials

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Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes

Jhurley — Tue, 20 Oct 2026 00:08:20 GMT

Created page with "Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR®; US Pat. Nos. 10,384,246 and 10,688,545) is a cost-effective and adaptable low temperature thermal remediation techn..."

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Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR®; US Pat. Nos. 10,384,246 and 10,688,545) is a cost-effective and adaptable low temperature thermal remediation technology that accelerates contaminant treatment. It achieves this by enhancing biotic and abiotic contaminant degradation rates through a modest increase in subsurface temperature. TISR® is suitable for a wide range of hydrogeologic settings. It also offers reduced operational costs, a lower carbon footprint, and possibly shorter remedial timeframes than more conventional methods.
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'''Related Article(s):'''

*[[Thermal Remediation]]
*[[Thermal Remediation - Electrical Resistance Heating | Electrical Resistance Heating]]
*[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]
*[[Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies | Combined Remedies]]

'''Contributors:''' Jonah Munholland, Julia Vidonish, and Craig Divine

'''Key Resources:'''
*Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. ESTCP Project ER20-5028<ref>Divine, C., Munholland, J., Zardouzian, E., Justicia-Leon, S., Aspinall, J.V., Randhawa, D., Falta, R., Freedman, D., Becker, M., 2025. Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes, Final Report. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER20-5028. [https://serdp-estcp.mil/projects/details/bab4bc87-b4bc-42df-ad0e-11ea0adf27dc/er20-5028-project-overview Project Website]  [[Media: ER20-5028 FR DevineEtAl2025.pdf | Final Report.pdf]]</ref>.

*Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. Munholland ''et al.'', 2024<ref name="MunhollandEtAl2024">Munholland, J, Rosso, D., Randhawa, D., Devine, C., Pennington, A., 2024. Advances in Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation. In: García-Rincón, J., Gatsios, E., Lenhard, R.J., Atekwana, E.A., Naidu, R. (eds), Advances in the Characterisation and Remediation of Sites Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons, Chapter 18 pp. 623-653. Environmental Contamination Remediation and Management series, Springer Nature. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34447-3_18 doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-34447-3_18]  [[Media: MunhollandEtAl2024.pdf | Open Access Chapter]]</ref>.

*A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ornelles, Falta, and Divine, 2023<ref name="Ornelles">Ornelles, A.D., Falta, R.W., Divine, C.E., 2023. A Design Tool for Solar Thermal Remediation Using Borehole Heat Exchangers. Ground Water, 61(2), pp. 245-254. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13265 doi: 10.1111/gwat.13265]  [https://ngwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/gwat.13265 Free download from NGWA]</ref>.

*Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Horst, ''et al.'', 2018<ref name="HorstEtAl2018">Horst, J., Flanders, C., Klemmer, M., Randhawa, D.S., Rosso, D., 2018. Low-Temperature Thermal Remediation: Gaining Traction as a Green Remedial Alternative. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 38(3), pp. 18-27. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gwmr.12295 doi: 10.1111/gwmr.12295]</ref>.

==Introduction==
[[File: MunhollandFig1c.png | 430 px | thumb | Figure 1. Components and layout of a TISR® system]]
TISR® utilizes [[Wikipedia: Downhole heat exchanger | borehole heat exchangers (BHEs)]] to heat target treatment areas in the subsurface. This is achieved through a combination of solar collectors, which harness solar radiation as heat, and the utilization of other heat sources such as waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps. That heat is then transferred to the subsurface via a closed loop circulation system connected to the BHEs (Figure 1). By incorporating these additional heat sources, TISR® ensures a more robust and constant heat supply, enabling customization of the system to address specific site challenges and facilitate efficient heat transfer.

The heating of the subsurface through TISR® accelerates various processes such as biodegradation, abiotic reactions, and contaminant desorption and dissolution. The technology is also suitable for diverse hydrogeologic environments, including sites with low permeability zones, due to the relatively uniform thermal conductivity of geologic materials, which is unaffected by grain size<ref name="MunhollandEtAl2024"/>. This versatility allows TISR® to integrate with conventional remediation technologies, enhancing their performance.

One of the key advantages of TISR® is its ability to accelerate treatment processes while minimizing energy consumption. By harnessing renewable and sustainable energy sources such as solar radiation and effectively utilizing waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps, TISR® delivers an efficient, cost-effective remediation solution. Compatibility with multiple conventional remediation technologies makes it an effective option for addressing a variety of contamination challenges.

==Scientific Principles==
[[File: MunhollandFig2.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 2: Effect of temperature on hydrolysis rates for VOCs]]
During the TISR® heating process, thermal conduction and advection play a crucial role in boosting physical, biological, and chemical processes within the treatment zones, leading to enhanced attenuation, degradation, and removal of contaminants from the subsurface<ref>Dettmer, K., 2002. A Discussion of the Effects of Thermal Remediation Treatments on Microbial Degradation Processes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office, Washington, DC. [[Media: dettmer2002.pdf | free report]]  [https://www.clu-in.org/download/techdrct/dettmer.pdf free download from clu-in.org]</ref><ref name="HorstEtAl2018"/>. TISR® systems are typically designed to enhance the biological activity and performance of other active technologies, such as [[Wikipedia: Air sparging | air sparge]]/[[Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) | soil vapor extraction]] (AS/SVE) or [[Chemical Oxidation (In Situ - ISCO) | chemical oxidation]], by increasing the subsurface temperature by approximately 10°C to 20°C. The target groundwater temperature is often set to reach up to about 35°C, which is the optimal temperature for promoting the activity of mesophilic microbial communities responsible for biodegradation of certain contaminants. In cases where the objective is to maximize abiotic hydrolysis mechanisms, such as for some chlorinated alkanes, TISR® systems can be designed to reach a final groundwater temperature of up to 60°C.

The effectiveness of TISR® in enhancing treatment performance has been demonstrated through several mechanisms, which are discussed below:

*Primary dechlorinating bacteria, such as [[Wikipedia: Dehalococcoides | Dehalococcoides]] and [[Wikipedia: Dehalogenimonas | Dehalogenimonas]], are known to be [[Wikipedia: Mesophile | mesophilic]]. Therefore, increasing the temperature can significantly enhance microbial activity and biodegradation by multiple orders of magnitude<ref>Macbeth, T., Truex, M., Powell, T., Michalsen, M., 2012. Combining Low-Energy Electrical Resistance Heating with Biotic and Abiotic Reactions for Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent DNAPL Source Areas. [https://serdp-estcp.mil/ Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)] [https://serdp-estcp.mil/projects/details/877a3b41-6bed-4f4a-b43a-87fbcd9b7f0b/er-200719-project-overview Project ER-200719 webpage]  [[Media: Macbeth2012_ER-200719-FR.pdf | free download]]  [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EbwKbs8scE Project Summary Presentation]</ref>.

*Reduced iron minerals, particularly iron sulfides, can participate in the abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethenes and other contaminants. The rates of these reactions generally depend on temperature, following the [[Wikipedia: Arrhenius equation | Arrhenius equation]].

*[[Wikipedia: Hydrolysis | Hydrolysis]] rates for certain compounds exhibit high temperature dependence. For example, a 10°C increase can lead to a 50% reduction in the half-life of [[Wikipedia: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane | 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA)]]<ref>Suthersan, S., Horst, J., Klemmer, M., Malone, D., 2012. Temperature-Activated Auto-Decomposition Reactions: An Under-Utilized In Situ Remediation Solution. Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation, 32(3), pp. 34-40. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6592.2012.01407.x doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6592.2012.01407.x]</ref>. Figure 2 presents the calculated temperature-dependent hydrolysis rates for 13 common [[Wikipedia: Volatile organic compound | volatile organic compounds (VOCs)]] at a pH of 7.

*[[Wikipedia: Henry's law | Henry's Law]] constant, [[Wikipedia: Vapor pressure | vapor pressure]], solubility, and viscosity values are also temperature dependent. For instance, the Henry's Law constant values for many VOCs, including [[Wikipedia: Tetrachloroethylene | tetrachloroethene (PCE)]], have been observed to double between 8 and 24°C<ref>Chen, F., Freedman, D.L., Falta, R.W., Murdoch, L.C., 2012. Henry's law constants of chlorinated solvents at elevated temperatures. Chemosphere, 86(2), pp.156-165. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004 doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004]</ref>.

*Rates of other processes that often limit the pace of remediation, such as dissolution, desorption, and [[Matrix Diffusion | back diffusion]], are positively correlated with temperature. This results in an enhanced bioavailability of contaminant mass that may otherwise be inaccessible.

These various mechanisms collectively contribute to the improved performance of other active treatments when temperature is moderately increased by utilization of TISR®.

==Implementation and Practical Considerations==
[[File: MunhollandFig3.png | thumb | 430 px | Figure 3: Transformation of 1,1-DCE and VC following installation of a TISR® system]]
TISR® has proven successful in reducing contaminant concentrations across diverse hydrogeologic settings, including those with low and complex hydraulic conductivity conditions. Figure 3 shows a sharp initial decrease in [[Wikipedia: 1,1-Dichloroethylene | 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE)]] concentrations due to enhanced biodegradation, and then a temporary small increase followed by subsequent decreases in 1,1-DCE concentrations to below detection limits, possibly the result of temperature-enhanced desorption or dissolution of 1,1-DCE from the aquifer. There is also a temporary increase and then decrease in the concentrations of [[Wikipedia: Vinyl chloride | vinyl chloride (VC)]] (a biodegradation product) to very low levels.

The TISR® system construction utilizes off-the-shelf modular components, promoting cost-efficiency, reusability, and a reduced carbon footprint. Waste heat can supplement or replace the solar setup, and remote monitoring through dashboard apps reduces operation and maintenance costs. TISR® projects typically achieve an average capital cost payback within 1 to 3 years due to accelerated rates of remediation.

When implementing TISR®, [[Wikipedia: Solar irradiance | solar insolation]] and groundwater velocity must be considered for optimal equipment sizing and cycling. Depending on remedial goals and site history and conditions, the TISR® system and target temperatures may be designed to enhance specific remedial mechanisms (e.g. hydrolysis over bioremediation). Recently Ornelles ''et al.''<ref name="Ornelles"/> developed an easy to use Excel-based model that can be used to optimize TISR® design and predict subsurface temperature changes over time. Frequent monitoring of the temperature and microbial community composition relative to targets is useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness and optimizing system performance. The system and target temperatures can be customized to enhance specific remedial mechanisms based on site conditions and goals.

==Summary==
TISR® is a cost-effective and adaptable technology that can be customized to address specific site challenges. It can be used as a standalone solution or be integrated with existing remediation strategies to enhance their effectiveness. TISR® is particularly effective in challenging hydrogeological conditions and can be optimized to suit specific treatment mechanisms. By shortening the active remediation timeframe, TISR® reduces lifecycle costs and minimizes the carbon footprint associated with the remediation process.
 

==References==
<references />

==See Also==
[https://vimeo.com/1019489395 TISR® Explanation Video]

User:Jhurley/sandbox

Jhurley — Mon, 19 Oct 2026 19:15:13 GMT

‎Implementation and Practical Considerations

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‎Introduction

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File:ER20-5028 FR DevineEtAl2025.pdf

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File:MunhollandEtAl2024.pdf

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File:Dettmer2002.pdf

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Show changes

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 ==About the Contributor==
-Dr. Divine, National Technical Expert and Vice President at Arcadis, has 25 years of experience characterizing and remediating chlorinated solvents and other contaminants utilizing a wide range of technologies, including ''in situ'' bioremediation, chemical oxidation, zero valent iron (ZVI), air sparging, cosolvent/surfactant flushing, and dynamic groundwater recirculation. Dr. Divine has particular expertise in the design and analysis of applied tracer tests and has been directly involved in the design, implementation, and analysis of more than 100 tracer tests.  Dr. Divine has developed and field-tested numerous innovative technologies, including subsurface nuclear magnetic resonance logging (NMR), point velocity probes (PVPs), passive diffusion samplers for dissolved gases, partitioning interwell tracer tests (PITTs), LNAPL mobility measurement with tracers, cyclodextrins for DNAPL source treatment, and Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR<sup><small>SM</small></sup>) for enhancing degradation rates in source zones. He is also the co-inventor of the Horizontal Treatment Well (HRX Well<sup><small>&reg;</small></sup>), the Min-Trap™ reactive mineral sampler, and the Sentinel™ passive PFAS sampler.
+Dr. Divine, National Technical Expert and Senior Vice President at Arcadis, has 30 years of experience characterizing and remediating per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chlorinated solvents, metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons utilizing a wide range of technologies, including in situ bioremediation, chemical oxidation, zero valent iron (ZVI), air sparging, cosolvent/surfactant flushing, and dynamic groundwater recirculation. His expertise includes site characterization and conceptual site model development, contaminant transport and fate, and remediation system design and operation. He has co-authored about 80 scientific papers, holds seven granted and pending patents related to characterization and remediation, and serves as an Associate Editor for Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation and Remediation Journal. Dr. Divine has authored approximately 85 scientific papers and holds 7 issued and pending patents. He has served as Principal Investigator on numerous SERDP and ESTCP research and demonstration projects and has developed, field-demonstrated, and commercialized numerous innovative technologies. He is also the co-inventor of the In Situ Engineered Mineral Sorption (ISEMS™) PFAS treatment technology, the Horizontal Treatment Well (HRX Well®), the Min-Trap™ reactive mineral sampler, and the PassiveX™ passive PFAS sampler.
 ==Article Contributions==

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 *[[Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes | Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR) to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes]]
 *[[Thermal Remediation]]
 '''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Gorm Heron]]
 '''Key Resource(s)''':

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 *[[Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes | Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR) to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes]]
 *[[Thermal Remediation]]
 '''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Gorm Heron]]
 '''Key Resource(s)''':

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 *[[Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes | Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR) to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes]]
 *[[Thermal Remediation]]
 '''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Gorm Heron]]
 '''Key Resource(s)''':

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 *[[Thermal Remediation - Steam |Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE)]]
 *[[Thermal Conduction Heating for Treatment of PFAS-Impacted Soil]]
 *[[Thermal Remediation]]

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 '''Related Article(s):'''
-*[[Thermal Remediation]]
+*[[Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies | Combined Remedies]]
 *[[Thermal Remediation - Electrical Resistance Heating | Electrical Resistance Heating]]
 *[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]
-*[[Thermal Remediation - Combined Remedies | Combined Remedies]]
+*[[Thermal Remediation]]
 '''Contributors:''' Jonah Munholland, Dr. Julia Vidonish, and [[Craig E. Divine, Ph.D., PG|Dr. Craig Divine]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:00, 28 October 2026
(One intermediate revision by the same user not shown)
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	*[[Thermal Remediation - Steam \|Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE)]]		*[[Thermal Remediation - Steam \|Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE)]]
	*[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]		*[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]
		+	*[[Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes \| Thermal In Situ Sustainable Remediation (TISR) to Enhance Biotic and Abiotic Reactions and Accelerate Remediation Timeframes]]

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 **[[Thermal Remediation - Steam | Steam Enhanced Extraction (SEE)]]
 **[[Thermal Conduction Heating (TCH)]]
 <u>'''[[Soil & Groundwater Contaminants]]'''</u>

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:23, 23 October 2026
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	==See Also==		==See Also==
		+	[https://soundcloud.com/arcadis-north-america/ex-situ-soil-washing-to-remove SERDP and ESTCP PFAS Research and Remediation Podcast : Ex Situ Soil Washing to Remove PFAS Adsorbed to Soils from Source Zones]

@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 ==Article Contributions==
 *[[Amendment Distribution in Low Conductivity Materials]]
 *[[Transition of Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) Fire Suppression Infrastructure Impacted by Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)]]

@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 ==Introduction==
-[[File: MunhollandFig1c.png | 430 px | thumb | Figure 1. Components and layout of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
+[[File: MunhollandFig1c.png | 430 px | thumb | left | Figure 1. Components and layout of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
 TISR<sup>®</sup> utilizes [[Wikipedia: Downhole heat exchanger | borehole heat exchangers (BHEs)]] to heat target treatment areas in the subsurface. This is achieved through a combination of solar collectors, which harness solar radiation as heat, and the utilization of other heat sources such as waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps. That heat is then transferred to the subsurface via a closed loop circulation system connected to the BHEs (Figure 1). By incorporating these additional heat sources, TISR<sup>®</sup> ensures a more robust and constant heat supply, enabling customization of the system to address specific site challenges and facilitate efficient heat transfer.
@@ Line 29: / Line 30: @@
 ==Scientific Principles==
-[[File: MunhollandFig2.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 2: Effect of temperature on hydrolysis rates for VOCs]]
 During the TISR<sup>®</sup> heating process, thermal conduction and advection play a crucial role in boosting physical, biological, and chemical processes within the treatment zones, leading to enhanced attenuation, degradation, and removal of contaminants from the subsurface<ref>Dettmer, K., 2002. A Discussion of the Effects of Thermal Remediation Treatments on Microbial Degradation Processes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office, Washington, DC. [[Media: dettmer2002.pdf | free report]]&nbsp; [https://www.clu-in.org/download/techdrct/dettmer.pdf free download from clu-in.org]</ref><ref name="HorstEtAl2018"/>. TISR<sup>®</sup> systems are typically designed to enhance the biological activity and performance of other active technologies, such as [[Wikipedia: Air sparging | air sparge]]/[[Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) | soil vapor extraction]] (AS/SVE) or [[Chemical Oxidation (In Situ - ISCO) | chemical oxidation]], by increasing the subsurface temperature by approximately 10°C to 20°C. The target groundwater temperature is often set to reach up to about 35°C, which is the optimal temperature for promoting the activity of mesophilic microbial communities responsible for biodegradation of certain contaminants. In cases where the objective is to maximize abiotic hydrolysis mechanisms, such as for some chlorinated alkanes, TISR<sup>®</sup> systems can be designed to reach a final groundwater temperature of up to 60°C.

@@ Line 84: / Line 84: @@
 *Consideration of biotransformation in modeling and interpretation of LEAF data, as the state of the science regarding biotransformation of polyfluoroalkyl substances to terminal perfluoroalkyl acids advances.
-[[File: 10150_Leaf_v2.mp4 | thumb | 500 px | | left | Figure5. Overview of LEAF Method for PFAS Leaching Characterization]]
+[[File: 10150_Leaf_v2.mp4 | thumb | 500 px | left | Figure 5. Overview of LEAF Method for PFAS Leaching Characterization]]
 ==Other LEAF Resources==

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:17, 20 October 2026
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−	'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Stephen Richardson \|Dr. Stephen Richardson~~, PE~~]] and [[Craig E. Divine, Ph.D., PG\|Dr. Craig E. Divine~~, PG~~]]	+	'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Stephen Richardson \|Dr. Stephen Richardson]] and [[Craig E. Divine, Ph.D., PG\|Dr. Craig Divine]]

@@ Line 22: / Line 22: @@
 ==Introduction==
-[[File: MunhollandFig1c.png | 400 px | thumb | Figure 1. Components and layout of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
+[[File: MunhollandFig1c.png | 430 px | thumb | Figure 1. Components and layout of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
 TISR<sup>®</sup> utilizes [[Wikipedia: Downhole heat exchanger | borehole heat exchangers (BHEs)]] to heat target treatment areas in the subsurface. This is achieved through a combination of solar collectors, which harness solar radiation as heat, and the utilization of other heat sources such as waste heat or hybrid heating with heat pumps. That heat is then transferred to the subsurface via a closed loop circulation system connected to the BHEs (Figure 1). By incorporating these additional heat sources, TISR<sup>®</sup> ensures a more robust and constant heat supply, enabling customization of the system to address specific site challenges and facilitate efficient heat transfer.
@@ Line 48: / Line 48: @@
 ==Implementation and Practical Considerations==
-[[File: MunhollandFig3.png | thumb | 500 px | Figure 3: Transformation of 1,1-DCE and VC following installation of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
+[[File: MunhollandFig3.png | thumb | 430 px | Figure 3: Transformation of 1,1-DCE and VC following installation of a TISR<sup>®</sup> system]]
 TISR<sup>®</sup> has proven successful in reducing contaminant concentrations across diverse hydrogeologic settings, including those with low and complex hydraulic conductivity conditions. Figure 3 shows a sharp initial decrease in [[Wikipedia: 1,1-Dichloroethylene | 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE)]] concentrations due to enhanced biodegradation, and then a temporary small increase followed by subsequent decreases in 1,1-DCE concentrations to below detection limits, possibly the result of temperature-enhanced desorption or dissolution of 1,1-DCE from the aquifer. There is also a temporary increase and then decrease in the concentrations of [[Wikipedia: Vinyl chloride | vinyl chloride (VC)]] (a biodegradation product) to very low levels.
 The TISR<sup>®</sup> system construction utilizes off-the-shelf modular components, promoting cost-efficiency, reusability, and a reduced carbon footprint. Waste heat can supplement or replace the solar setup, and remote monitoring through dashboard apps reduces operation and maintenance costs. TISR® projects typically achieve an average capital cost payback within 1 to 3 years due to accelerated rates of remediation.
 When implementing TISR<sup>®</sup>, [[Wikipedia: Solar irradiance | solar insolation]] and groundwater velocity must be considered for optimal equipment sizing and cycling. Depending on remedial goals and site history and conditions, the TISR<sup>®</sup> system and target temperatures may be designed to enhance specific remedial mechanisms (e.g. hydrolysis over bioremediation). Recently Ornelles ''et al.''<ref name="Ornelles"/> developed an easy to use Excel-based model that can be used to optimize TISR<sup>®</sup> design and predict subsurface temperature changes over time. Frequent monitoring of the temperature and microbial community composition relative to targets is useful for evaluating treatment effectiveness and optimizing system performance. The system and target temperatures can be customized to enhance specific remedial mechanisms based on site conditions and goals.
 ==Summary==